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Sister Hazel is an American alternative rock band from Downloxd, Floridawhose style blends elements of jangle hayefolk rocki hate hazel 30 rock free download rockand southern rock. Sister Hazel formed in Gainesville, Floridavree and was named rcok Sister Hazel Williams, a local missionary who ran a homeless shelter. Newell played on the album больше информации officially joining the group.

The band’s second album, Somewhere More Familiar was released in and sold approximately 30, copies through its initial donload, prompting Universal Records to dowhload the band. Hzael re-released Somewhere More Familiar in late The band’s third album Fortress was released in rpck Universal. Inafter the band split from Universal, they released their fourth studio album, Chasing Daylighton the Sixthman label and toured throughout the year to promote the album.

The band’s frer presence emerged during donload time period, and hardcore fans dubbing themselves “Hazelnuts” studied setlists, shared bootleg concert recordings, and initiated a promotion scheme with the band through посмотреть еще official website.

DreeSister Hazel released their next studio album Lift. Songs from Lift were re-recorded for ‘s Lift: Acoustic Renditionsan EP of studio acoustic takes on five of the songs, offered exclusively through Apple ‘s iTunes Store. In Julythe Sister Hazel album was re-issued again by Sixthman, in response to claims that the album had become difficult to find in stores. Sister Hazel then promoted their album, Absolutelywhich was released on October i hate hazel 30 rock free download, Absolutely is the band’s highest-charting album on the Rockk charts following Fortress and it received 4 out of a possible 5 stars from Allmusica tie with Fortress’ s score.

Volume 1. It contains B-sides from the Absolutely recording sessions and some from previous albums. The record features sixteen tracks, including the band’s hits, fan favorites, and live concert staples, all frew a stripped-down, acoustic format. The band has been chosen to be the face of the company’s “Sync My Ride” website, www.

The band released their seventh studio album of original songs tenth album overall on August 18, The album, entitled Releasecontains 12 tracks and is on the Rock Ridge Music label.

The band entered the studio less than six months after releasing Release and began work on their new album, Heartland Highway. The album was released on October 12,and featured “Stay a While” as the first radio single. The band’s ninth studio album, Lighter in the Darkwas announced in the later part of It /33282.txt their first country album, and was released on February 19, Two songs, “We Got It All Tonight” i hate hazel 30 rock free download “Karaoke Song”, which features country artist Darius Ruckerwere made available for instant download for those who pre-ordered the album.

Hazel Kirkland Williams, the band’s namesake, died on July 16,читать больше the age of 91 in Gainesville. It was announced, less than a week after the привожу ссылку of Waterthat the band have begun recording their next EP a follow-up to Water in Nashville.

The next EP Wind was released on September 7, The final installment in the “Elements” series, Здесьwas released on Downloda 6, Each of the EPs in the series included a portion of a song at the end, intended to be linked together in a future release. On November 26,all the EPs were combined into a single release, Elements. The song, double-disc set includes the final “Elements” song pieced together. However, the track was not included when the album was released in Lyrics for Life is a non-profit organization for the benefit of pediatric cancer.

From Wikipedia, the i hate hazel 30 rock free download encyclopedia. American alternative rock band. Not i hate hazel 30 rock free download be confused with Freee band.

Alternative rock [1] i hate hazel 30 rock free download rock folk rock [2] jangle pop [3] [4] [5]. This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. June Learn how and when to remove this template message.

Taste of Country. Retrieved February 4, здесь The Daily Gamecock. October 16, Retrieved May 11, The Riverfront Times. Retrieved July 25, The Seattle Times. Chattanooga Times Free Press. They’ve had hits with “All for You” and “Change Your Mind,” and their music blends Southern rock, classic нажмите для деталей and посетить страницу rock, but my favorite description of Sister Hazel called them a jangle pop band.

Retrieved June 5, ii Retrieved July 11, Billboard magazine. Alternative Addiction. February 19, July 17, Naples Illustrated. Freee March i hate hazel 30 rock free download, Guitar Site.

Somewhere More Familiar They also made a bunch of awesome records”. Consumable Online. I hate hazel 30 rock free download from the original on March fere, Retrieved June 22, The Patch.

Retrieved October 14, Archived from the original on May 12, Retrieved February 22, Archived from the original on May 13, Somewhere More Familiar”. Recording Industry Association of America. Retrieved September 11, April 3, Retrieved September 27, Retrieved March 2, July 23, Sister Hazel. Sister Hazel Before the Amplifiers, Live Acoustic.

Authority control. Germany United States. MusicBrainz artist. Categories : Musical groups from Gainesville, Florida Jangle pop groups Musical groups established in Посетить страницу источник Ridge Music artists hszel in Florida 20th-century American guitarists Alternative rock groups from Florida Southern rock musical groups from Florida Folk rock groups.

Namespaces Article Talk. Views Read Edit View history. Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file. Download as PDF Printable version. Wikimedia Commons. Sister Hazel performing in Orlando, Florida, in GainesvilleFlorida, US. Official website. RIAA : Platinum [24]. Fortress Released: June 27, Label: Universal. US: 3, [28]. US: 3, [29]. Somewhere More Familiar. Chasing Daylight.

Hazel Findlay: How to Find Your Flow.

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This article was just edited, click to reload. This article has been deleted on Wikipedia Why? Please click Add in the dialog above. This book is about how to under- 5 stand that environment and the form, construction and history of buildings. That is part of the challenge 3 and this book is about understanding buildings, whether we like them or 4 not. This means not just the way they look, or their construction and mater- 5 ials, but how they came into being, and how they were and are used.

To 6 understand the complexities of the built environment we need to know some- 7 thing about the decisions that led to building developments, the economic 8 and political context of patronage, the role of developers and the social and 9 cultural context of building use. Studying the past enables us to understand today more clearly.

Prize-winning archi- 9 tects and prize-winning buildings are given star treatment and major new developments across the world are the subject of keen debate.

Many people 1 now feel encouraged to join in the debate on architecture, particularly 2 when new developments affect their own locality. Some new and import- 3 ant developments mark this broadening of interest. Television and the web 4 make it possible to see examples of international architecture in our homes. Photographs, plans, models and videos are among the techniques used. For this a critical approach becomes important and, in order to discuss buildings in any detail, some under- standing of the language of architecture is essential.

This book presents a step in that direction. Some of the discussions and writing on the subject can seem daunting and impenetrable because of the technical terms used. In addition, ordinary terms may be used in a specialised way that can be quite different from our day-to-day language. While it is all very well to have a dictionary at hand, it does tend to be off-putting if one needs to use it too frequently.

This book is about how to understand architecture and its history in a very practical way, so we explain the terms as we go along. We live our lives in and around buildings, even those of us who live in the country, yet although our surroundings are familiar, their details can prove elusive.

When we travel we notice how the buildings differ from those with which we are familiar. This may be due to different materials, colours, forms and scale.

We can describe our homes so that a new visitor will recog- nise them, and perhaps we could even sketch them with a reasonable degree of accuracy. Then try to describe that group of buildings, or sketch them, as accurately as possible. To do so you will need to remember what the roofs, windows and entrances are like, how many storeys there are, what materials are used, and their colour and texture. You will also need to remember how each building relates to its neighbour and to its wider setting.

If you then go on to compare these details with somewhere else where you have spent time, such as on holiday, you will be able to pinpoint some of the major differ- ences between the two. The next step is to think about the reasons for these differences. If a new building has recently appeared in our familiar surround- ings, we tend to look at it very closely. We compare it with what it has replaced and look to see how it relates to its neighbours. We often develop a clear opinion as to whether we think it is a positive addition to our environ- ment, or a negative one.

After a short while, however, it becomes virtually impossible to remember the building that it replaced. Introduction 3 Buildings may form the background to our lives, but most of the time 2 we do not look at them very critically or in any detail, unless we have a 3 particular need to do so. When moving house we think about such things 4 as the neighbourhood, the number and disposition of rooms, the cost, the 5 location of shops, schools and available forms of transport, but the appear- 6 ance of the new house may not necessarily be very important.

Yet, learning 7 to examine buildings in a critical way can add another dimension to our 8 daily lives, for it brings greater understanding of our environment. Our reac- 9 tions to buildings depend very much on our expertise, background and interests.

An architect will think about how a building was designed, why 1 it was constructed in its particular way and how it relates to the other build- 2 ings nearby.

A developer will look at the economic potential of a 5 building and its site. Today we recognise the increasing importance of 6 sustainability, both in new buildings and in the reuse of existing buildings. There is a well-established strategy 9 for informing the public of new proposals, but only the broadest outlines may be given at the preliminary stage, and these may be radically altered 1 later. Plans and models may be displayed at the town hall, city hall or in 2 libraries, but even if people have the time to go and see them, they may not 3 have the skills necessary to read and interpret them.

A new development 4 may take years to evolve. Many people would like their 8 voices to be heard from the initial stages of a proposed new development, 9 instead of at the last stages of an application. This situation is now changing as 5 the importance of public consultation becomes increasingly recognised.

This 6 book aims to provide those interested in the built environment and new 7 developments with some of the skills necessary to take part in these processes. There may also be buildings that we detest. Appreciating architecture has a lot to do with personal attitudes and we all have our personal prejudices about most things. These prejudices can inhibit our understanding and we need to be aware of them and try to stand back from them. The ways in which people have responded to particular building forms or styles have changed from period to period and from culture to culture.

We need to develop empathy with our period, so that we understand what was happening from the point of view of those who were present at the time. We examine some of the tech- niques that enable us to begin to do this. Understanding buildings means what it says: going out and about and looking at buildings for oneself, not just from the outside, but inside as well.

These qualities are lost in photographs, for an external view of a building can rarely indicate how thick the walls are, or give a sense of the space around the building or inside it. Furthermore since most photographs are of single buildings, their surround- ings are absent.

In this book we have perforce to make do with photographs. Another advantage of visiting buildings is that a close examination may reveal how they were constructed and if they have been altered. However, with the problems of security, the number of buildings that one can visit without making prior arrangements is rather limited.

Even religious build- ings nowadays tend to be closed unless there is a service on, and if a service is in progress, then it is not possible to walk about. Public buildings such as railway stations, libraries, museums, stores or banks present fewer prob- lems and provide varying opportunities for seeing a range of buildings both inside and out. Museums of building can provide excellent opportunities for seeing a range of buildings that have often been moved from their original location in order to preserve them.

Joining these groups also provides an excellent opportunity for contributing to saving historic buildings. Introduction 5 The built environment consists of a wide range of building types from 2 the earliest periods of history. Some have been considered architecture, some 3 engineering and others have been termed building.

Our examples include buildings from many different periods 2 and countries, and the captions to our illustrations indicate where they are located.

Meaning and metaphor are important parts of our subject and we look 1 at some of the ways in which these are conveyed.

This is the 9 only way in which we as individuals can hope to stand outside the subjec- tive prejudices of personal likes and dislikes to which we are all prone. This 1 is a complex task, for architectural history in its broadest sense encom- 2 passes a number of specialist areas, each of which asks different questions 3 and applies different methods.

It includes the histories of materials, of 4 construction, and of particular building types such as public houses, temples, 5 factories, forts, hospitals or low-cost housing. It also includes histories of 6 building and planning legislation, archaeology and industrial building and 7 many other areas. Each of these histories offers different insights and has 8 enriched the subject.

The space of a building includes not only the internal space, but also the space around, under and above it: the streets, squares, plazas, landscapes, gardens and roof gardens. It also includes transitional space such as porches that link the inside and outside. We look at the size and shape of spaces and the reasons for them, at proportion and at the relationship between spaces.

The allocation of living space is economically, socially and culturally determined and we include examples from many parts of the world including the Far East, India, Africa, Europe and the US.

Controlling the internal environment makes it possible for us to live and work in extreme climates of great heat or cold. We examine how some of these solutions have affected building design; we look at the difference between active and passive methods of environmental control, at the spaces needed to house services such as water, electricity and sewage waste and at the implications of sustainability for buildings.

We intro- duce the various types of plan and image and discuss some of the problems of interpreting them. Although it may be impossible to visit the inside of a building, plans and drawings enable us to see how the interior works.

Models include single buildings, areas of new development, and topograph- ical models of entire cities. Because they are three dimensional it may seem that they are easier to understand than drawings, but again there can be many issues in interpretation. Buildings are constructed of a wide range of materials, the most common being wood and various types of stone and brick. Each material has its strengths and weaknesses and in Chapter 6 we look at some of the potential and limitations they offer.

If buildings are to survive for any length of time they need to be well constructed and stable. We introduce the main types of construction and how to recognise them, the various means of spanning space, as well as forms of roof construction and the types of foundation that have been developed for different terrain.

It is the space, function, material and construction of a building that are important in determining its form, and from this we are in a position to examine its exterior. As we travel around from home to work, or out to enjoy ourselves, the exteriors that form the built environment surround us. Much of the debate on new developments and much of the antipathy in the West towards the architecture of the s and s, focuses on the subject of ornament and communication and we look at some of the issues in this debate.

The number of such books is indicative of the interest in 8 this type of approach. There are many 1 excellent books and dictionaries of architecture on the subject of particular 2 periods and styles worldwide. Rather than providing a checklist or catalogue of the various periods and styles, in Chapter 8 we examine some of the 4 problems of grouping buildings in this way. The 2 approach to buildings and their positioning in the environment, whether it 3 is urban, suburban or in the countryside, is another important factor in our 4 understanding of their physical context.

We need to be aware of these transformations if we are to understand the physical context of 1 buildings and we discuss some of these issues. Some environments are more 2 attractive than others and those that we enjoy are distinctive and special. Both 3 old and new developments may be inspiring and enjoyable but sometimes 4 there may be a tension between the two.

In Chapter 10 we indicate where to 1 look for information, and we look at the web and at the quality of the archi- 2 tectural information available on it. We look at the differences between 3 primary and secondary sources, the range of sources that are available, such 4 as guide books, journals, title deeds, wills or company records, and the type of information that they will give us.

This book is about the subject of architecture, building and the built environment in all its forms: a vast subject that encompasses many different disciplines. It is the complexity and the multiplicity of roles performed by architecture that make it such a challenge to study, for it is at the same time an art, a technology, an industry and an investment.

It provides the physical framework for our lives, so it has a public role, but it is also where we live, work and play, so it has a private role.

It has material form, but it also represents our ideals and aspirations. Housing, buildings for recreation, government buildings, religious buildings and town planning illustrate not only how we live, but also our aspirations for the future. Architecture is as much concerned with beauty, style and aesthetics as it is with technology, economics and politics. It is the product of archi- tects, engineers, builders and entrepreneurs and it is used by ordinary people whose voices have until recently rarely been heard.

That is to say it is concerned with the aesthetic arts, as opposed to 7 the useful or industrial arts such as engineering. It is a debate that still continues. This dualism 3 between art on the one hand and utility or function on the other continues, 4 but it is unsatisfactory for it does not address the complex interlinking of the two. Figure 2. Many would agree that large, expensive 5 and prestigious buildings representing powerful sectors of society — such as 6 palaces, temples, cathedrals and castles, known as polite architecture — should 7 be included, but would question the inclusion of cottages, garages or railway 8 stations.

We may enjoy the moss-covered thatched roofs and mellow walls 9 of country cottages or admire the skill and craftwork of pole and dhaka clay homesteads in Africa; however because they are modest structures that profes- 1 sional architects did not design, some would argue that they are not 2 architecture.

Such buildings may be visually pleasing and intricately crafted, 3 but until recently they were not deemed worth studying as architecture. Local builders or the occupants made them, to satisfy practical, 6 cultural, and community needs and values. Nevertheless, 9 it has generally been studied separately from polite or monumental archi- tecture and has been seen as a branch of anthropology, construction history 1 or social history. In places such as the Indian sub-continent 3 these comprise some 95 per cent of the housing stock.

Grouping buildings according to their use, such as military, domestic, recreational, industrial or transport, is another way of subdividing the subject, as is grouping them according to the methods or materials of construction. In the past some writers argued that the monks as builders and as patrons designed these cathedrals. Others stressed the role of the master masons and emphasised the mechanics of construction, particularly of large and complicated churches, so that the architect was seen in effect as a prac- tising engineer.

Another interpretation was to see the creation of cathedrals as the achievement of collectives of craftsmen contributing their individual skills and working cooperatively. Today historians recognise the important role of the higher clergy as patrons who, in consultation with the architects, determined the form of the cathedrals. Some architects may 2 be little more than technicians or draughtspeople, while at the other end of the scale they may act as entrepreneurs and developers, particularly in the 4 United States.

In China there are records of named architects dating 1 from the tenth century and the earliest surviving manual by Li Jie, Yingzao 2 Fashi State Building Standards , was published in Li Jie worked as 3 Superintendent for State Buildings in the Ministry of Works from and 4 was a distinguished practising builder as well as a writer.

In the nineteenth century the 4 work of many architectural practices included surveying, providing bills of quantities, arranging leases and assessing rents, as well as designing.

These architects could be self-employed or salaried and working for large architectural practices, local authorities or commercial and industrial companies. Howard M. Of these only about forty were involved in building the factories that we associate with the early stages of the industrial revolution.

It was the engineers who designed the machinery and it was mainly they who designed the structures to house them. The reasons for these developments relate to the changing practice of building in the mid-eighteenth century, the increasing division of labour, transform- ations in building technology and the emergence of new types of building. The development of the architectural profession in the UK is marked by the foundation of the Institute of British Architects, launched by T.

Donaldson in , and the setting up of chairs of architecture in the uni- versities. Women have nevertheless practised architecture throughout history although their contribution has been largely unrecognised.

Architecture and building 15 Heroic architects and heroic architecture 2 3 With the professionalisation of architecture came an increased emphasis on 4 the importance of the individual architect, an emphasis that continues today.

Great architects 8 are seen as heroes who create sculptural objects alone, often in the face of 9 incomprehension and opposition. Alongside this focus on architects as heroes comes the disparagement from those who do not understand them, the 1 clients, the town planners and the public.

The result of this privileging tendency is to empha- 5 sise originality and novelty, and this is also evident in current practice and 6 in histories of architecture.

It creates a predominantly aesthetic emphasis, 7 with much less stress on the teams of people involved in the production of 8 buildings, or the appreciation of the needs of prospective users. In traditional communities several family members 2 — or local builders in liaison with community leaders — cooperate in designing 3 and building structures.

If architecture is seen solely as the province 9 of architects, whether heroic or not, then people may misunderstand their role in creating the built environment and may blame them if they do not 1 like the results. In vernacular architecture the men 4 and women who design and build their own communities combine the roles of patron, designer and builder. By the nineteenth century the clients of civic and commercial buildings could be committees of people with little knowledge of architecture.

In such projects those who commission the building may be far removed from the users, and this raises particular prob- lems for the architect who may also have little or no contact with the users. The notion of the architect as hero and supreme artist is somewhat diminished when we consider the role of the architect in the context of these realities. The concept of the heroic architect relates partly to the romantic view of architects as artists, partly to the ideology of individualism and partly to the perception that promoting individual architects is good for business.

A number of architects have delib- erately set out to cultivate the idea of the heroic architect. The heroic approach to architecture reinforces the idea that it is the indi- vidual architect who makes history and so the history of architecture is the history of great architects and great buildings. New research on an important but neglected building or architect remains unpublished because commercial publishers like safe, recognised subjects and do not want to risk investing in a topic hitherto unknown.

There are many exemplary studies and biographies of individual architects that place their subject fully within their contexts. Among these are: A. Yatsuka and D. The Eiffel Tower is so closely linked in 1 our minds with Paris that we cease to think about it as a structure built for 2 a particular purpose and greeted with outrage initially. Tower Bridge 7 in London and the Taj Mahal in Agra, Central India, are other examples of 8 cultural monuments that have become isolated from the context in which 9 they developed Figure 2.

When we, the authors, visited the Taj Mahal we felt we were so familiar with its image that the reality would have little 1 impact on us. We were quite unprepared for its striking beauty and tran- 2 quil setting. We tend to view these cultural monuments uncritically and yet 3 accept the strength of their symbolism. The Guggenheim was, however, not the only new building to grace Bilbao.

The idea of heroic or notable build- 2 ings is in one sense obvious, for some buildings do stand out more than 3 others. Today it is commerce and banking which predom- 9 inate, and the commercial skyscrapers that dominate the skyline of major cities underline this.

Although heroic architecture visually reinforces the 1 power structure in any period, this does not mean that we should concen- 2 trate our attention solely on it. To do so, or to apply a star system to architecture, would result in a very partial view of our subject, comparable 4 in effect to restricting the study of history to that of kings and queens and 5 the dominant hierarchy. Pevsner and his assis- 9 tants did not restrict themselves only to obviously notable buildings such as churches and palaces, but they nevertheless had to evolve criteria to enable 1 them to decide which buildings to include and which to omit.

Bridget Cherry 2 and her team had to make similar decisions about what to include and what 3 to omit when resurveying UK buildings for revised editions. Heroic architects have not designed most of the built environment and clearly a view of architecture that ignores where the vast majority of people live, work and play would be extraordinarily limited.

For most of us, where we live is very important, yet unless we live in a palace or in a house designed by a major architect, the heroic approach would not see this as a suitable topic. It is essential to consider the full range of buildings in any society and also, indeed, to examine those societies which at certain periods produced little architecture.

In ancient Sparta there was little if any monumental archi- tecture and the city had no city wall. Studying any type of building is revealing whether or not an architect designed it. Every building had to be paid for, whether by a patron, the taxpayer, the builder or a commercial organisation. All buildings stand in a particular relationship to their site and to neighbouring buildings.

Their form relates to their use and to the materials of which they are constructed. Their success as buildings relates to their form, construction, materials and physical context, and to how well they accommodate the functions required by those using them. They proclaim symbolic and metaphorical messages to which we respond on a variety of levels. The scope of the subject is enor- mous and buildings do not need to be aesthetically pleasing, intellectually stimulating or architect-designed to warrant further study.

Because we do not like a particular building style, it does not mean 6 that that style was not historically important, or that the architects involved 7 in producing such work were totally mistaken in their aims.

Determined to win the commission, Scott reluctantly produced 9 a renaissance-style design, which was built — More recently, in the s, many 3 architects, architectural critics, writers and historians were against historical 4 styles and in particular any form of Victorian architecture.

If we are to try to understand the National Theatre as a building, it is no use averting our eyes and saying it is horrible. We need to look at the ideas and ideals that inspired Denys Lasdun at the time the building was being designed. We have to look at the way the building performs, that is to say how theatregoers, actors and other staff respond to it. It is true that interpretations do change and we look at the past quite differ- ently according to our present concerns and outlook.

We need to try to be as objective as possible, while recognising that our ability to be so is affected by our present assumptions and the limits of our historical period and place. Architecture and building 23 Architectural terminology 2 3 If we are to understand buildings and communicate our understanding to 4 others we need to be able to identify particular details and give them their 5 correct name.

Learning architectural terminology is like learning a new 6 language and unfortunately there are no short cuts. There are a number of archi- 9 tectural dictionaries, including illustrated ones that are particularly useful for acquiring the vocabulary necessary to discuss buildings in detail. Owning 1 your own copy is essential in order to be able to look terms up as you come 2 across them. One of the most direct and enjoyable ways 5 of building up this new language is to visit buildings with a good guide- 6 book.

In 8 the UK, many of us who developed a passion for architecture acquired our 9 architectural vocabulary largely through travelling around the country with the appropriate Pevsner Buildings of England in our hands. Buildings 3 that have movement may mean that they are suffering from subsidence, or 4 are crumbling away, but when architects and architectural writers talk about 5 a building having movement, they could mean something quite different.

The rhythms or the regular 4 spacing of openings and other features remind us of beats in music — the closer the spacing the faster the beats.

It is in this way we may speak of movement in 2 architecture. By comparison the baroque church appears as a dynamic three- 3 dimensional sculpture. Two tiers of 4 giant orders mark the three bays.

Some see masculine and feminine attributes in 7 a variety of architectural features: towers are phallic and masculine; domes 8 represent breasts and are feminine. This sort of terminology and type of inter- 9 pretation does not add very much to our understanding of architecture.

The indoor environ- 4 ment causes malaise to people while they are in them and this ceases when 5 they leave. Allergies, asthma, headaches and lethargy are the symptoms of 6 SBS and they can result from a number of causes. Some architectural writers argue that there is a building syntax 2 with words, phrases and grammar, implying that buildings speak a language 3 comparable to that which we speak. This constitutes the reality of our physical 1 experience, but buildings exist not only in reality but also metaphorically.

Its physical form, in other words, seems to refer both literally and symbolically to its maritime position and to the sailing boats in Sydney Harbour. However, the architect may have drawn upon a far wider range of experiences.

All of these may have informed his design. Buildings are central to our need for shelter and security and they symbolise aspects of these needs in their form. A house not only provides shelter and warmth, it also symbolises home on a very deep level. A young English child drawing a house will characterise it very simply, with a pitched roof and maybe a door and windows. This form came to symbolise shelter, just as the chimney came to symbolise the existence of warmth.

Together their message is home. Many architects have exploited this symbolism in their work, among them Frank Lloyd Wright. Buildings have intrinsic meanings that result from their spatial and visible forms and extrinsic meanings that have evolved out of tradition and social use.

Thus the meaning of a door is intrinsic to it. The exterior in this instance indicates how the interior of the building functions and this intrinsic meaning becomes part of the architectural language of the period. The ways in which the form of particular buildings relates to their func- tion is part of their extrinsic meaning. This dislike may be rationalised in practical terms, with the argument that such roofs are inappropriate and not weatherproof, but this may not be the real reason for the antipathy.

Architecture provides the environment for our lives. During the nineteenth century a range of new building types evolved to house the new developments of that prodigiously inventive century. You did not enter a theatre expecting to see the bank manager, nor did you confuse the town hall with the railway station. The overall form of these buildings commun- icated their purpose. This is a two-way process; the building provides the physical environment and setting for a particular social ritual such as travelling by train or going to the bank as well as the symbolic setting.

The meaning of buildings evolves and becomes established by experience and we, in turn, read our experience into buildings. Buildings evoke an empathetic reaction in us through these projected experiences, and the strength of these reactions is determined by our culture, our beliefs and our expectations.

They tell stories, for their form and spatial organisation give us hints about how they should be used, so they are a form of narrative. Their physical layout encourages some uses and inhibits others; we do not go backstage in a theatre unless especially invited. Inside a law court the precise location of those involved in the legal process is an integral part of the design and an essential part of ensuring that the law is upheld.

If a building design breaks from familiar conventions we may not be able to read any message about its role and function and we could become confused or irritated. Since the late twentieth century old docks, warehouses, banks, libraries and other recognisable building types have closed down and subsequently been given new uses such as loft apartments, restaurants, bars and estate agents.

Once daunting and dirty, factories and warehouses have been domesticated, with curtains at the windows and geraniums in window boxes.

The Jewish Museum is part museum and part monument. At its heart is a tall void, the Holocaust 4 Tower, a narrow, dark grey, triangular space some three storeys high, very 5 quiet, with no sound from the world outside, dimly lit from a vertical strip 6 window at the top of the apex of the triangle.

This powerful, frightening 7 space dramatises and symbolises absence, evoking the memory of those 8 millions of Jews killed in the Second World War.

The design includes the tallest tower in the world, reinforcing the message of US indomitability. At various periods a new language of forms and a new architecture were consciously evolved. It tried to liberate architecture from an obsession with style and its aims were universal. Modernism became an international force, but in so doing modernist buildings tended not to respond to particular cultures or to particular environments Figure 2. These modernist buildings are located in the UK, the US and France and each is distinctly modernist, but there is little in their design or materials to indicate where they are located.

Postmodern archi- tecture was essentially about communication. Initially postmodernism was a reaction against the high-rise apartment blocks, the commercial develop- ments and the use of concrete that was associated with modernism in the s. Such architecture alienated people, said the postmodernists, because it did not communicate, so postmodernism set out to communicate.

These elements were restricted to the exterior of the building and became in effect a mask which had little or nothing to do with what went on inside. They liked its scale, which is in harmony with the adjacent townscape, the variety of the materials used and the traditional feel to the whole complex.

Real architecture in this particular instance meant solid brick walls and slate roofs, or roofs hidden behind parapets and classical elements which according to the architect are eternal and universal, and therefore appropriate to all periods.

Its content and the approaches 2 to it are being widened, as we explore in later chapters. Today we accept 3 that it is just as valid to examine an industrial structure such as a gasholder 4 as it is to examine castles, cathedrals and dwellings of all types Figure 2.

Stylistic analysis 7 and the search for the principles of beauty are still with us and we all want 8 to improve our environments, but we no longer seek to do this in isolation 9 or just in terms of individual buildings, but in terms of the built environ- ment as a whole. Greater awareness of what architecture is about is vital if 1 we are to develop environments that mean something to us all.

We need 2 to understand how we have arrived at today and that means that we need to 3 see today within the context and perspective of the past. Architecture affects everyone and so we all need to take responsibility for it, but we can only do so when we understand more about it. Architecture is something to be enjoyed and shared. If it is shared more widely as more people understand it, then the chances are that the urban environment will improve and architects will no longer be seen as respon- sible for all that we dislike in it, but as part of a team which enables us to achieve our ideals.

Where it differs is in the 5 nature of the evidence available and in the techniques developed to evaluate 6 that evidence. In its initial stages any historical study involves collecting 7 facts. In order to make any sense of those facts they must be selected, ordered, 8 evaluated, interpreted and placed in context. Carr in What is History? Antiquarians love ancient objects and buildings, and 5 facts about them, because they are old, but they may not necessarily be inter- 6 ested in the reasons that lie behind their development.

Nostalgia and the 7 theme park industry are about escaping into the past in order to enter a 8 different world, a world that may be of beauty and interest, but one that 9 may have little to do with the realities of that past. There is nothing wrong in visiting theme parks or enjoying nostalgia so long as we are aware that 1 we may be seeing a partial or distorted picture of the past. It is a dynamic process, not static, and 4 the history unfolding before our eyes, the present, is part of that process 5 and informs our understanding of the past.

History is not a jigsaw puzzle 6 that can be completed and put away. We continually come to the subject 7 with new questions, historical interpretations are always open to reinterpre- 8 tation and there will never be a time when we can claim we know all there 9 is to know about, say, medieval architecture.

Yet, studying the past can help us understand how we have arrived at today and give us insights into the 1 production and use of built environments. In architectural history this evidence may take the form of the 4 buildings themselves or their remains, and documents such as plans, draw- ings, descriptions, diaries or bills. These buildings were part of a rich and diverse culture, much of which has been lost.

Different historians may place different values on the same facts, and the discovery of new evidence may modify or change existing theories and interpretations. Historiography Architectural history, like any other branch of history, is not a static subject; interpretations often change quite radically, with new evidence and as perspectives vary.

Historiography is the study of the ways in which histor- ical interpretations change. The tastes at one date may lead to once underrated architecture being completely reinterpreted. In the s and s Victorian architecture was despised, particularly by modernists who could see nothing to commend it. Yet, today, we enjoy its richness and complexity and seek to preserve it wherever possible. This is not a modern phenomenon. To sixteenth-century Italians the works of the medieval period or middle ages seemed old fashioned and even foreign brought in by a Teutonic people or Goths , as architects sought to recover their architectural roots in Roman classical architecture.

Eventually renaissance ideas spread throughout Europe, but were themselves challenged by archaeology and detailed research in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This contributed to a recovery of an understanding and appreciation of medieval architecture, known as the gothic revival.

More recently the search for an alternative to the forms of modernism adopted internationally has led to a recovery of regional and historical archi- tecture. They analysed ancient historical architectural texts as far back as 2 the fourth and third centuries BC and studied the pre-colonial city of the 3 early eighteenth century, Jaipur.

In so doing they uncovered the evolving 4 tradition of Indian architectural theory and built form known as vastu vidya 5 architectural knowledge. New challenges 9 and ideas encourage us to ask different questions, questions that had hardly been thought of previously, or if they were, only by a very few.

One such 1 example concerns the role of women in architecture. In her research, Lynne 2 Walker argued that in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries some women were engaged in public building projects and businesses allied to building 4 trades, but it was mainly educated upper-class women with the money 5 and time who practised architecture as amateurs within the family estate.

Watts 1 at Compton, Surrey, —, designed by Mary Watts, his wife, was 2 unusual. Historical 1 research, in other words, can explain what has happened in the past but can- 2 not offer a simple guide to future action. It is important that we are aware 3 and critical of the ways in which our own attitudes have been constructed.

The diameter of the Circus at Bath is feet, 9 the same as that of Stonehenge and this was, so Wood argued, equal to 60 Jewish cubits, that is to say the dimensions of the second temple at Jerusalem 1 Figure 3.

He was convinced that Bath 3 had been the principal Druid centre of Britain. By examining and questioning 2 the historical evidence Mowl arrived at a new interpretation of one of the 3 most important architectural features of Bath.

The subject is in a sense as old as architecture itself, but in 5 another sense it is a comparatively new one.

Because 7 the separation of architectural history as a discipline distinct from that of 8 architecture is comparatively recent, architectural histories have in the past 9 tended to be written mainly by architects. From the period of ancient Greece and Rome until the sixteenth century, architectural critics wrote about 1 contemporary architecture. In the sixteenth century this changed. Vasari, 2 writing about the architecture of his day, placed it in the context of past 3 architecture as a means of justifying the superiority of contemporary work.

In their historical writings architects took a polemical stance, using 8 the past to justify and validate the present. As we have seen, the surviving remains of ancient Roman 2 buildings in Italy provided a positive inspiration to the architects of the early 3 renaissance there.

By contrast, to A. In these exam- 8 ples the new contemporary architecture was seen as an improvement on what 9 had immediately preceded it. Instead of simply seeing contemporary architecture as 2 an improvement on the past, some architects and intellectuals began to appre- 3 ciate past periods and styles of architecture and differentiate between discrete 4 phases with distinct merits.

As in the earlier centuries they also used past princi- ples as the basis for new architecture. It included Egyptian, Chinese and Islamic buildings and was an early comparative history of world architecture. In J. Unlike Vasari, this provided an account of past architecture that did not interpret it as a prelude to the superior architecture of the present day.

The eighteenth-century enlightenment encouraged the development of architectural history. During this period many intellectuals questioned the basis of society and everything that had been taken for granted: religion, the monarchy, aesthetics and history. It was this questioning which paved the way for the French revolution and the industrial revolution. The enlighten- ment examined the past in order to discover why the world was as it was and the alternatives.

Excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum began to reveal something of the past, as did visits to ancient classical sites and to Egypt. The newly developing subject of architectural history tended to be encyclopaedic in scope and to concentrate on form, styles and heroic building types.

The close ties between American and German scholarship in the area of archi- tectural history persisted during the major part of both centuries. Subsequently called A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method, the eighteenth edition published in became simply A History of Architecture.

The orig- 2 inal method adopted by the father-and-son team was to apply the techniques 3 of comparative anatomy and comparative biology to architecture. History of 4 Architecture: Centenary Edition is the title of the twentieth and most recent 5 edition. For example, it can be revealing to compare a mosque 1 in the UK or the United States today with one built in the Indian sub- 2 continent or in the Middle East, or an ancient Roman arena with a modern football stadium, since each pair is concerned with similar functions.

There 4 would, however, be little point in comparing buildings that had nothing in 5 common, such as a Roman arena with a Victorian church. The technique 6 has also been used for didactic purposes. In the edition of this book Pugin juxtaposed illustrations contrasting the negative qualities of contemporary cities and their architecture with the positive qualities of the medieval equivalent Figure 3. The walled medieval town with church spires punctuating the skyline is surrounded by open country- side.

In the nineteenth-century town, factories and factory chimneys vie with the spires. Architectural history developed in Europe, and although Fischer von Erlach included non-European architecture in his early history of the subject, the main focus of study has been European monumental or polite archi- tecture. Often if the architecture of continents other than Europe or North America was discussed, it tended to be from a Eurocentric and colonial point of view.

This is evident in the judgements made by James Fergusson, a successful Scottish businessman, amateur historian and traveller, who wrote the History of Indian and Eastern Architecture in His subject was enor- mous, covering many religions, cultures and periods. He focused on technical and aesthetic questions and praised the variety and originality of buildings in such diverse areas as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Cambodia, Java, China and Japan.

Nevertheless he selected and saw buildings through Western eyes and constantly made a negative comparison with European traditions.

Of the Indian civilisation he stated that it: may contain nothing so sublime as the Hall at Karnac, nothing so intel- lectual as the Parthenon, nor so constructively grand as a medieval cathedral; but for certain other qualities — not perhaps of the highest kind, yet very important in architectural art — the Indian buildings stand alone.

This is now often called Indo-Islamic architecture. The 3 name Islamic is also a Western construct and it raises further questions. References to Islamic architecture, however, often apply to all build- 7 ing types in Islamic countries, in lands that Islam conquered, or where there 8 are large Muslim communities, such as tropical Africa or Indonesia. It is also 9 applied to the architecture of the Islamic diaspora in western Europe and America.

To those sharing this overwhelming European focus it was 2 impossible to believe that a major African building such as the thirteenth- 3 century Great Zimbabwe ruins could have been built by the local people; 4 it was argued that early Arab or European traders and explorers must have 5 built it Figure 3.

Vernacular architecture belonging to any region con- 6 tinues to be ignored in Banister Fletcher presumably because it is regarded 7 as low status and the buildings are often impermanent. We need to identify 8 the prejudices of the historian and be wary of Eurocentric value judgements 9 that still overshadow discussions of vernacular buildings, or those of colonised people and their successors.

This has led to many separate societies and journals. Some take an aspect of the subject and study it in more detail; others develop new theories and approaches. The UK Construction History Society focuses on the history of structural design and the history of building practice. We now have a pretty fair command of these subjects. There is a tendency now to look more deeply into the social, economic and industrial hinterland.

The quest for understanding why the architecture of any place or period developed as it did has led to many theories. But they have been challenged. The theories gener- ally fall into four main groups: rational, technological and constructional; material, economic and social; religious, cultural and philosophical; and the spirit of the age.

Theories of architectural change are linked to approaches to the discipline of architectural history and to value judgements in archi- tecture. They can say as much about the historian, as identifying reasons for the emergence of particular built forms. Technical and materialist theories The technical and rational theory of architecture tends to seek answers either in terms of new technological or constructional developments, or as the result of applying logic to technological or practical problems.

If we look at the medieval cathedral according to this theory, then the reason why gothic cathedrals evolved their complex forms was in response to the practical prob- lems posed by building high buildings, spanning wide spaces and incorporating increasingly large glass windows. Clearly many medieval buildings reveal great engineering prowess but medievalists today would question this view.

There is also uncertainty as to how far medieval builders understood the behaviour of materials. As for the concern for height, 4 this seems to have been an option but not a necessary requirement and again raises questions about the primacy of new constructional techniques. Known as rationalists they also argued that merit in the architecture of their own day should come from giving priority to the logic of the essential structure or supporting elements of a building.

It therefore seeks to set architecture in this context. Buildings are related to the social and economic system that has encouraged certain social relationships, methods of exchange and manufac- ture. These give rise to particular patterns of patronage and consumption, techniques of construction, building types and planning. This focus on the material conditions, however, denies the role of the patron and architect and fails to account for the diversity of expression at any one time.

Religious and cultural theories The theory that architecture expresses the religious, cultural and philosoph- ical ideas of the period implies that if we know enough, it should be possible to forecast what the architecture will be. It also implies a simple and direct relationship between architecture and these ideas, rather than acknowledging that all societies and their cultural manifestations are complex organisms.

For A. The pyramid and obelisk of Egyptian Architecture, its Lotus capitals, its gigantic sphinxes and multiplied hieroglyphics, were not mere fanciful Architectural combinations and ornaments, but emblems of the philosophy and mythology of that nation.

He argued in True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture that gothic was not a style, but a set of building principles that were as relevant to the s as to the medieval period. For example, the religious principle of truth was expressed through the principle of architectural truth.

Constructional truth meant that the construction of a building was evident and not concealed; ornament was used, but it did not obscure the construction and it was appropriate in form and meaning. Truth to materials meant that all materials were chosen for their particular quali- ties and not painted to look like other materials.

They have examined individual cultures synchroni- 4 cally, or at one point in time, as a single system of meanings like a language. For the Navajo the forms were a 9 divine gift to the people from their deity, Talking God; they had cosmo- logical meanings and required the enactment of rituals.

The hogan was roughly circular to symbolise the 3 cosmos. Each of four structural poles represented a cardinal point and was 4 associated with an individual female deity. The entry always faced the rising 5 sun in the east. Invisible boundaries within led to strict gender divisions: 6 men and their possessions to the left or south, women to the right or north. Architectural historians might also wish to 3 investigate the tension between the forms as carriers of symbolic meaning 4 and as a product of physical and technical constraints.

They would also want to undertake research into the historical sources of the design. This theory came from the German philosopher Hegel and provided a concep- tual framework for understanding the historical development of art and architecture for the major part of the twentieth century.

Central to the concept of the Zeitgeist is the idea of history as a progressive process. Because these styles were evident in architecture, painting, furni- ture, ceramics, dress and literature they were manifestations of the Zeitgeist and the similarities in the work of architects, painters, designers and writers were the result of living in the same period.

The danger of this explanation is that it encourages the search for consistency in order to build a coherent picture. In an attempt to establish modernism as the only true style, early twentieth-century historians such as Nikolaus Pevsner and Siegfried Giedion employed the concept of the Zeitgeist. These included the mass market, new power sources, materials such as glass, steel and reinforced concrete, new forms of transport and increasing urbanisation.

They saw modernism as a coherent style based on these features and thus it accorded with the spirit of the age. Many avant-garde architects and designers explored novel forms appro- priate to the new materials and technology and particularly welcomed urban projects for mass housing, health centres and industrial buildings.

Between the two World Wars modernism was practised by only a small group of architects and designers, located mainly in western Europe. However modernist historians did 3 not see those styles as genuine products of the age but, rather, as the result 4 of crass commercialism, wayward individualism or as the archaic remnants 5 of styles belonging to previous periods. The theory presupposed a value 6 judgement. From the title we might expect a broad survey of building in the twentieth century, 1 but this is not the case.

The works that Sharp selected were those that he 2 was able to group together as modernist. Like his predecessors, Pevsner and Giedion, Sharp found in modernism what he believed was the true and ultim- 4 ately hegemonic style of the period. The subject is res- 2 ponding to the linguistic theories of Derrida and others, just as much as it 3 is to the social psychoanalysis of post-Freudian critics. Derrida challenged 9 the existence of any necessary connection between surface structures and deep structures.

He believed linguistic structures were a way of establishing 1 hierarchical relationships between good and evil, text and speech, author 2 and reader, men and women. A deconstructive reading meant noting the 3 hierarchy and challenging it, but at the same time resisting the introduction 4 of a new hierarchy. Tschumi had been exploring the links between 8 deconstruction and architecture and he contacted Derrida who agreed to 9 become involved.

Tschumi used three superimposed 2 grids to structure the open areas. Structures came before spaces, and the folies 3 came before uses. Thus the meaning of the park depended on the visitor and their reasons for being there and did not depend on the design. Tschumi boasted that at la Villette he had created the largest discontinuous building in the world. One of the most wide- spread approaches focuses on periods and style and in Chapter 8 we examine, clarify and deconstruct some of its concepts.

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This shift poses a significant challenge to politicians who increasingly have to respond to a technologically mediated lifestyle politics that celebrates lifestyle diversity, personal disclosure and celebrity.

Young Citizens in a Digital Age presents new research and the first comprehensive analysis of ICTs, citizenship and young people from an international group of leading scholars.

It is an important book for students and researchers of citizenship and ICTs within the fields of sociology, politics, social policy and communication studies among others. Rob Kitchin. Yael Allweil. Tim Winter. Margaret Walton-Roberts. Jonathan Jackson. The dataset used here covers 26 of the 28 countries, and has a total sample size of almost 51, people. The analysis is thus on a large scale, and serves as an exemplar of a particular approach to comparative research, involving empirical testing of a theoretical model.

Soohyun Han. Martin Oliver. In the previous chapter, the design of learning activities was located within the wider context of the learning organization and curriculum.

This chapter picks up where that chapter left off, at the level of the course and curriculum design. Starting with the generic teaching and learning literature, the authors outline established approaches to course design and go on to discuss the evidence for how these approaches work within e-learning contexts. The chapter emphasizes the power of the transformative course design and presents a series of examples of courses designed for learning, and a set of tools to support practitioners in this task.

Peter Eckersley. Poornima Ram. Tourism in the Middle East: Continuity, change and …. Sour Tyre. Jan Herrington. Peter Goodyear. Chapter 4 in Sustainability Assessment by A. Bond, A. Morrison-Saunders and R. Richard Stoffle. AbdouMaliq Simone. Luis H Moreno. Tommaso Vitale. Sarah Busse Spencer. Pinar Bedirhanoglu. Akel I Kahera. George Lane. Jon Goodbun. Rinella Cere , Thomas Ugelvik. Dean McDonnell , Cliona Flood. Fengshi Wu. Elites and Governance in China.

David Bray. Torkild Thanem. Lawrence J Taylor. Sharon E. Philippe C. Ask Vest Christiansen. Zach Anderson , Thomas McShane. Harvey Johnston. Dietmar Offenhuber , orkan telhan. Joseph Salukvadze. Jon Goodbun , David Cunningham. Lucy Suchman. Neeschey Dixit. Perilli and D. Taormina eds , Ancient Philosophy. Textual Paths and Historical Explanations, Routledge. Dimitri El Murr. Michael Ulfstjerne.

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Download Free PDF. Understanding architecture an introduction to architecture and architectural history hazel conway and rowan roenisch. Aseel Rababah. Related Papers. Thinking about maps. Heterotopia and the city: public space in a … Public-space heterotopias. Returning, remitting, reshaping: non-resident Indians and the transformation of society and space in Punjab, India.

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This new edition looks at the implica- 7 tions of sustainability, at conservation, landscape, and urban regeneration. She was awarded her 8 doctorate for her study of Victorian parks. She has contributed 5 to the Encyclopaedia of Vernacular Architecture of the World and presented 6 papers on Zimbabwean Shona and Tonga architecture at the International 7 Association for the Study of Traditional Environments conferences held in 8 Italy and Hong Kong.

No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0———5 hard cover: alk.

Architecture and society. Roenisch, Rowan. We have made every effort to contact and acknow- ledge copyright holders, but if any errors or omissions have been made we would be happy to correct them at a later printing. Through carefully chosen and well-illustrated 3 examples, taken from many parts of the world, the reader is both informed 4 and given the means by which to analyse and understand the architecture 5 around them.

It is this last fact that 3 becomes important in the late twentieth century. The public and semi-public 4 realms of our urban and suburban environments have so often been domi- 5 nated by agencies other than the user and the citizen.

Some of the obvious non-caring attitudes could so easily be turned into a sense of responsibility 1 if people knew a little more about the meaning and intention involved and 2 understood more about why and how things happen. The aim of this book 3 is to make these complex issues clearer. These are not peculiar to the late twentieth century. Architecture is only part of our environment and if this is to be life-enhancing, it has to 1 take account of settings and the spaces between buildings.

The great spaces 2 of our cities are like the living rooms of a great house, but so many are 3 spoiled and cluttered unnecessarily. Many of the mistakes that were made in the recent past will have to be redressed and perhaps the govern- mental machinery to achieve what is needed will have to undergo radical change.

These are challenging times for our urban environments, and their destinies depend on the understanding of the ordinary citizen.

This book attempts to elucidate that understanding. We should point out, however, that the responsi- bility for the contents of this book rests entirely with the authors. Catherine 1 King, Robert Hillenbrand, John Newman and Peter Howell all spent time 2 encouraging our efforts and we would like to express our thanks to them for 3 this.

We would also like to thank Neil Jackson for his comments and help 4 on American sources of information. In gathering together the illustrations 5 that form an essential part of this book we have often been accompanied, in 6 all types of weather, by tolerant friends and family who might sometimes 7 have preferred other destinations.

In particular, many discussions with Frieda 8 Roenisch, Fred Hoffman and John Hoffman have added considerably to the 9 book. Many individuals, organisations and institutions have gone out of their way to answer queries, provide help and lend us photographs; we would 1 particularly like to thank Mr and Mrs J.

We would also like to 8 thank our editors and De Montfort University for their support. This book is about how to under- 5 stand that environment and the form, construction and history of buildings. That is part of the challenge 3 and this book is about understanding buildings, whether we like them or 4 not. This means not just the way they look, or their construction and mater- 5 ials, but how they came into being, and how they were and are used.

It frees us from becoming impotent prisoners of the 1 present and enables us to see the possibilities of choice. This applies to any 2 area of history, including architecture and the built environment. Architec- 3 ture touches on many disciplines and this book adopts an holistic approach 4 to the subject. Prize-winning archi- 9 tects and prize-winning buildings are given star treatment and major new developments across the world are the subject of keen debate. Many people 1 now feel encouraged to join in the debate on architecture, particularly 2 when new developments affect their own locality.

Some new and import- 3 ant developments mark this broadening of interest. Television and the web 4 make it possible to see examples of international architecture in our homes. Photographs, plans, models and videos are among the techniques used.

For this a critical approach becomes important and, in order to discuss buildings in any detail, some under- standing of the language of architecture is essential.

When we travel we notice how the buildings differ from those with which we are familiar. This may be due to different materials, colours, forms and scale. We can describe our homes so that a new visitor will recog- nise them, and perhaps we could even sketch them with a reasonable degree of accuracy.

Then try to describe that group of buildings, or sketch them, as accurately as possible. To do so you will need to remember what the roofs, windows and entrances are like, how many storeys there are, what materials are used, and their colour and texture. You will also need to remember how each building relates to its neighbour and to its wider setting. If you then go on to compare these details with somewhere else where you have spent time, such as on holiday, you will be able to pinpoint some of the major differ- ences between the two.

The next step is to think about the reasons for these differences. If a new building has recently appeared in our familiar surround- ings, we tend to look at it very closely.

We compare it with what it has replaced and look to see how it relates to its neighbours. We often develop a clear opinion as to whether we think it is a positive addition to our environ- ment, or a negative one. After a short while, however, it becomes virtually impossible to remember the building that it replaced.

Introduction 3 Buildings may form the background to our lives, but most of the time 2 we do not look at them very critically or in any detail, unless we have a 3 particular need to do so. When moving house we think about such things 4 as the neighbourhood, the number and disposition of rooms, the cost, the 5 location of shops, schools and available forms of transport, but the appear- 6 ance of the new house may not necessarily be very important.

An architect will think about how a building was designed, why 1 it was constructed in its particular way and how it relates to the other build- 2 ings nearby. A developer will look at the economic potential of a 5 building and its site.

Today we recognise the increasing importance of 6 sustainability, both in new buildings and in the reuse of existing buildings. There is a well-established strategy 9 for informing the public of new proposals, but only the broadest outlines may be given at the preliminary stage, and these may be radically altered 1 later.

Plans and models may be displayed at the town hall, city hall or in 2 libraries, but even if people have the time to go and see them, they may not 3 have the skills necessary to read and interpret them. A new development 4 may take years to evolve. Many people would like their 8 voices to be heard from the initial stages of a proposed new development, 9 instead of at the last stages of an application.

This situation is now changing as 5 the importance of public consultation becomes increasingly recognised. This 6 book aims to provide those interested in the built environment and new 7 developments with some of the skills necessary to take part in these processes.

There may also be buildings that we detest. Appreciating architecture has a lot to do with personal attitudes and we all have our personal prejudices about most things. These prejudices can inhibit our understanding and we need to be aware of them and try to stand back from them. The ways in which people have responded to particular building forms or styles have changed from period to period and from culture to culture.

These changes continue today and interpretations vary according to the taste, likes and dislikes of the period. In order to understand a building of any period, we need to be as objective as possible. We need to develop empathy with our period, so that we understand what was happening from the point of view of those who were present at the time.

We examine some of the tech- niques that enable us to begin to do this. Understanding buildings means what it says: going out and about and looking at buildings for oneself, not just from the outside, but inside as well. These qualities are lost in photographs, for an external view of a building can rarely indicate how thick the walls are, or give a sense of the space around the building or inside it.

Furthermore since most photographs are of single buildings, their surround- ings are absent. In this book we have perforce to make do with photographs. Another advantage of visiting buildings is that a close examination may reveal how they were constructed and if they have been altered. However, with the problems of security, the number of buildings that one can visit without making prior arrangements is rather limited.

Such groups of buildings can be studied in their physical context, but need much interpretation owing to damage, loss and the changes brought about by tourism. Houses open to the public, such as those in the UK run by English Heritage, Historic Scotland or the National Trust, offer another excellent way of visiting buildings inside and out. Joining these groups also provides an excellent opportunity for contributing to saving historic buildings. Introduction 5 The built environment consists of a wide range of building types from 2 the earliest periods of history.

Some have been considered architecture, some 3 engineering and others have been termed building. Our examples include buildings from many different periods 2 and countries, and the captions to our illustrations indicate where they are located. Meaning and metaphor are important parts of our subject and we look 1 at some of the ways in which these are conveyed.

To understand why new building types and styles developed we 5 need to look at the social, political, philosophical, technological and economic 6 changes that were taking place, for these provide the context of the devel- 7 opment. We also have to try to enter into the minds of those who created 8 and criticised the buildings at the time they were constructed. This is the 9 only way in which we as individuals can hope to stand outside the subjec- tive prejudices of personal likes and dislikes to which we are all prone.

This 1 is a complex task, for architectural history in its broadest sense encom- 2 passes a number of specialist areas, each of which asks different questions 3 and applies different methods. It includes the histories of materials, of 4 construction, and of particular building types such as public houses, temples, 5 factories, forts, hospitals or low-cost housing.

It also includes histories of 6 building and planning legislation, archaeology and industrial building and 7 many other areas. Each of these histories offers different insights and has 8 enriched the subject. The space of a building includes not only the internal space, but also the space around, under and above it: the streets, squares, plazas, landscapes, gardens and roof gardens.

It also includes transitional space such as porches that link the inside and outside. We look at the size and shape of spaces and the reasons for them, at proportion and at the relationship between spaces. The allocation of living space is economically, socially and culturally determined and we include examples from many parts of the world including the Far East, India, Africa, Europe and the US.

Each material has its strengths and weaknesses and in Chapter 6 we look at some of the potential and limitations they offer. If buildings are to survive for any length of time they need to be well constructed and stable. We introduce the main types of construction and how to recognise them, the various means of spanning space, as well as forms of roof construction and the types of foundation that have been developed for different terrain.

It is the space, function, material and construction of a building that are important in determining its form, and from this we are in a position to examine its exterior.

As we travel around from home to work, or out to enjoy ourselves, the exteriors that form the built environment surround us. Much of the debate on new developments and much of the antipathy in the West towards the architecture of the s and s, focuses on the subject of ornament and communication and we look at some of the issues in this debate. The number of such books is indicative of the interest in 8 this type of approach.

There are many 1 excellent books and dictionaries of architecture on the subject of particular 2 periods and styles worldwide. Rather than providing a checklist or catalogue of the various periods and styles, in Chapter 8 we examine some of the 4 problems of grouping buildings in this way. The 2 approach to buildings and their positioning in the environment, whether it 3 is urban, suburban or in the countryside, is another important factor in our 4 understanding of their physical context.

The relationship between buildings 5 and landscape is complex and changes from period to period. As a result the surroundings to buildings may alter radically 9 and buildings may change their use or become redundant. We need to be aware of these transformations if we are to understand the physical context of 1 buildings and we discuss some of these issues.

Some environments are more 2 attractive than others and those that we enjoy are distinctive and special. Both 3 old and new developments may be inspiring and enjoyable but sometimes 4 there may be a tension between the two. In Chapter 10 we indicate where to 1 look for information, and we look at the web and at the quality of the archi- 2 tectural information available on it. We look at the differences between 3 primary and secondary sources, the range of sources that are available, such 4 as guide books, journals, title deeds, wills or company records, and the type of information that they will give us.

We hope to encourage readers to look at architecture with new critical eyes and to enable them to participate in decisions affecting their own environment. Our aim is to raise questions and then indicate which paths might lead to possible answers. This book is about the subject of architecture, building and the built environment in all its forms: a vast subject that encompasses many different disciplines. It is the complexity and the multiplicity of roles performed by architecture that make it such a challenge to study, for it is at the same time an art, a technology, an industry and an investment.

It provides the physical framework for our lives, so it has a public role, but it is also where we live, work and play, so it has a private role. It has material form, but it also represents our ideals and aspirations. Housing, buildings for recreation, government buildings, religious buildings and town planning illustrate not only how we live, but also our aspirations for the future.

Architecture is as much concerned with beauty, style and aesthetics as it is with technology, economics and politics. It is the product of archi- tects, engineers, builders and entrepreneurs and it is used by ordinary people whose voices have until recently rarely been heard.

Figure 2. Many would agree that large, expensive 5 and prestigious buildings representing powerful sectors of society — such as 6 palaces, temples, cathedrals and castles, known as polite architecture — should 7 be included, but would question the inclusion of cottages, garages or railway 8 stations. We may enjoy the moss-covered thatched roofs and mellow walls 9 of country cottages or admire the skill and craftwork of pole and dhaka clay homesteads in Africa; however because they are modest structures that profes- 1 sional architects did not design, some would argue that they are not 2 architecture.

Nevertheless, 9 it has generally been studied separately from polite or monumental archi- tecture and has been seen as a branch of anthropology, construction history 1 or social history. In places such as the Indian sub-continent 3 these comprise some 95 per cent of the housing stock.

It represented a new type of urban form that needed to be understood if techniques for handling it were to evolve. Because architecture is such a vast subject there have been many attempts to limit it, or to break it down into more manageable areas. Grouping buildings according to their use, such as military, domestic, recreational, industrial or transport, is another way of subdividing the subject, as is grouping them according to the methods or materials of construction.

In the past some writers argued that the monks as builders and as patrons designed these cathedrals. Others stressed the role of the master masons and emphasised the mechanics of construction, particularly of large and complicated churches, so that the architect was seen in effect as a prac- tising engineer.

Some architects may 2 be little more than technicians or draughtspeople, while at the other end of the scale they may act as entrepreneurs and developers, particularly in the 4 United States.

Architects in this role tend 7 to be more like business managers. Until quite recently — within the last years — 4 the role of the architect included surveying and building as well as military 5 and civil engineering. In China there are records of named architects dating 1 from the tenth century and the earliest surviving manual by Li Jie, Yingzao 2 Fashi State Building Standards , was published in Li Jie worked as 3 Superintendent for State Buildings in the Ministry of Works from and 4 was a distinguished practising builder as well as a writer.

In the nineteenth century the 4 work of many architectural practices included surveying, providing bills of quantities, arranging leases and assessing rents, as well as designing.

These architects could be self-employed or salaried and working for large architectural practices, local authorities or commercial and industrial companies.

Howard M. Of these only about forty were involved in building the factories that we associate with the early stages of the industrial revolution. It was the engineers who designed the machinery and it was mainly they who designed the structures to house them. The reasons for these developments relate to the changing practice of building in the mid-eighteenth century, the increasing division of labour, transform- ations in building technology and the emergence of new types of building.

The development of the architectural profession in the UK is marked by the foundation of the Institute of British Architects, launched by T. Donaldson in , and the setting up of chairs of architecture in the uni- versities. Women have nevertheless practised architecture throughout history although their contribution has been largely unrecognised. Architecture and building 15 Heroic architects and heroic architecture 2 3 With the professionalisation of architecture came an increased emphasis on 4 the importance of the individual architect, an emphasis that continues today.

Teamwork and collaboration 2 between architects and other disciplines, or between architect and client, are rarely emphasised and a wide range of professional architectural publications 4 reinforces this attitude. The result of this privileging tendency is to empha- 5 sise originality and novelty, and this is also evident in current practice and 6 in histories of architecture.

The actual designer was not necessarily Norman Foster himself, but one of the partners, backed by a team of 1 draughtspeople and designers. It is necessary to be familiar with the roles of all 7 the individuals and institutions involved in order to understand the factors 8 that affect the built environment. If architecture is seen solely as the province 9 of architects, whether heroic or not, then people may misunderstand their role in creating the built environment and may blame them if they do not 1 like the results.

In vernacular architecture the men 4 and women who design and build their own communities combine the roles of patron, designer and builder. By the nineteenth century the clients of civic and commercial buildings could be committees of people with little knowledge of architecture. In such projects those who commission the building may be far removed from the users, and this raises particular prob- lems for the architect who may also have little or no contact with the users.

The notion of the architect as hero and supreme artist is somewhat diminished when we consider the role of the architect in the context of these realities. The concept of the heroic architect relates partly to the romantic view of architects as artists, partly to the ideology of individualism and partly to the perception that promoting individual architects is good for business.

There are many exemplary studies and biographies of individual architects that place their subject fully within their contexts. Among these are: A. Yatsuka and D.

The Eiffel Tower is so closely linked in 1 our minds with Paris that we cease to think about it as a structure built for 2 a particular purpose and greeted with outrage initially. Tower Bridge 7 in London and the Taj Mahal in Agra, Central India, are other examples of 8 cultural monuments that have become isolated from the context in which 9 they developed Figure 2.

We tend to view these cultural monuments uncritically and yet 3 accept the strength of their symbolism. The Guggenheim was, however, not the only new building to grace Bilbao. The idea of heroic or notable build- 2 ings is in one sense obvious, for some buildings do stand out more than 3 others. Today it is commerce and banking which predom- 9 inate, and the commercial skyscrapers that dominate the skyline of major cities underline this.

Pevsner and his assis- 9 tants did not restrict themselves only to obviously notable buildings such as churches and palaces, but they nevertheless had to evolve criteria to enable 1 them to decide which buildings to include and which to omit.

The issue of taste Often we are drawn into studying architecture because we have strong feel- ings about our environment and about what we like and dislike, but our opinions change over time as the example of the Eiffel Tower, Paris, illus- trated. Because we do not like a particular building style, it does not mean 6 that that style was not historically important, or that the architects involved 7 in producing such work were totally mistaken in their aims.

Owning 1 your own copy is essential in order to be able to look terms up as you come 2 across them. One of the most direct and enjoyable ways 5 of building up this new language is to visit buildings with a good guide- 6 book. In 8 the UK, many of us who developed a passion for architecture acquired our 9 architectural vocabulary largely through travelling around the country with the appropriate Pevsner Buildings of England in our hands. Buildings 3 that have movement may mean that they are suffering from subsidence, or 4 are crumbling away, but when architects and architectural writers talk about 5 a building having movement, they could mean something quite different.

The rhythms or the regular 4 spacing of openings and other features remind us of beats in music — the closer the spacing the faster the beats. It is in this way we may speak of movement in 2 architecture. By comparison the baroque church appears as a dynamic three- 3 dimensional sculpture. Two tiers of 4 giant orders mark the three bays. Some see masculine and feminine attributes in 7 a variety of architectural features: towers are phallic and masculine; domes 8 represent breasts and are feminine.

This sort of terminology and type of inter- 9 pretation does not add very much to our understanding of architecture. The indoor environ- 4 ment causes malaise to people while they are in them and this ceases when 5 they leave. Allergies, asthma, headaches and lethargy are the symptoms of 6 SBS and they can result from a number of causes.

Some architectural writers argue that there is a building syntax 2 with words, phrases and grammar, implying that buildings speak a language 3 comparable to that which we speak. This constitutes the reality of our physical 1 experience, but buildings exist not only in reality but also metaphorically. Its physical form, in other words, seems to refer both literally and symbolically to its maritime position and to the sailing boats in Sydney Harbour.

However, the architect may have drawn upon a far wider range of experiences. All of these may have informed his design. Buildings are central to our need for shelter and security and they symbolise aspects of these needs in their form. A house not only provides shelter and warmth, it also symbolises home on a very deep level.

A young English child drawing a house will characterise it very simply, with a pitched roof and maybe a door and windows. This form came to symbolise shelter, just as the chimney came to symbolise the existence of warmth. Together their message is home. Many architects have exploited this symbolism in their work, among them Frank Lloyd Wright. Buildings have intrinsic meanings that result from their spatial and visible forms and extrinsic meanings that have evolved out of tradition and social use.

The ways in which the form of particular buildings relates to their func- tion is part of their extrinsic meaning. This dislike may be rationalised in practical terms, with the argument that such roofs are inappropriate and not weatherproof, but this may not be the real reason for the antipathy. Architecture provides the environment for our lives. During the nineteenth century a range of new building types evolved to house the new developments of that prodigiously inventive century.

You did not enter a theatre expecting to see the bank manager, nor did you confuse the town hall with the railway station.

The overall form of these buildings commun- icated their purpose. This is a two-way process; the building provides the physical environment and setting for a particular social ritual such as travelling by train or going to the bank as well as the symbolic setting.

Once daunting and dirty, factories and warehouses have been domesticated, with curtains at the windows and geraniums in window boxes. The Jewish Museum is part museum and part monument.

At its heart is a tall void, the Holocaust 4 Tower, a narrow, dark grey, triangular space some three storeys high, very 5 quiet, with no sound from the world outside, dimly lit from a vertical strip 6 window at the top of the apex of the triangle.

This powerful, frightening 7 space dramatises and symbolises absence, evoking the memory of those 8 millions of Jews killed in the Second World War. The design includes the tallest tower in the world, reinforcing the message of US indomitability. At various periods a new language of forms and a new architecture were consciously evolved. It tried to liberate architecture from an obsession with style and its aims were universal. Modernism became an international force, but in so doing modernist buildings tended not to respond to particular cultures or to particular environments Figure 2.

These modernist buildings are located in the UK, the US and France and each is distinctly modernist, but there is little in their design or materials to indicate where they are located. Postmodern archi- tecture was essentially about communication. Initially postmodernism was a reaction against the high-rise apartment blocks, the commercial develop- ments and the use of concrete that was associated with modernism in the s.

Such architecture alienated people, said the postmodernists, because it did not communicate, so postmodernism set out to communicate. These elements were restricted to the exterior of the building and became in effect a mask which had little or nothing to do with what went on inside.

They liked its scale, which is in harmony with the adjacent townscape, the variety of the materials used and the traditional feel to the whole complex. Real architecture in this particular instance meant solid brick walls and slate roofs, or roofs hidden behind parapets and classical elements which according to the architect are eternal and universal, and therefore appropriate to all periods. Its content and the approaches 2 to it are being widened, as we explore in later chapters.

Today we accept 3 that it is just as valid to examine an industrial structure such as a gasholder 4 as it is to examine castles, cathedrals and dwellings of all types Figure 2. Stylistic analysis 7 and the search for the principles of beauty are still with us and we all want 8 to improve our environments, but we no longer seek to do this in isolation 9 or just in terms of individual buildings, but in terms of the built environ- ment as a whole.

Greater awareness of what architecture is about is vital if 1 we are to develop environments that mean something to us all. We need 2 to understand how we have arrived at today and that means that we need to 3 see today within the context and perspective of the past. Architecture affects everyone and so we all need to take responsibility for it, but we can only do so when we understand more about it. Architecture is something to be enjoyed and shared. If it is shared more widely as more people understand it, then the chances are that the urban environment will improve and architects will no longer be seen as respon- sible for all that we dislike in it, but as part of a team which enables us to achieve our ideals.

It is a dynamic process, not static, and 4 the history unfolding before our eyes, the present, is part of that process 5 and informs our understanding of the past. History is not a jigsaw puzzle 6 that can be completed and put away. We continually come to the subject 7 with new questions, historical interpretations are always open to reinterpre- 8 tation and there will never be a time when we can claim we know all there 9 is to know about, say, medieval architecture. Yet, studying the past can help us understand how we have arrived at today and give us insights into the 1 production and use of built environments.

In architectural history this evidence may take the form of the 4 buildings themselves or their remains, and documents such as plans, draw- ings, descriptions, diaries or bills. These buildings were part of a rich and diverse culture, much of which has been lost. Different historians may place different values on the same facts, and the discovery of new evidence may modify or change existing theories and interpretations.

Historiography Architectural history, like any other branch of history, is not a static subject; interpretations often change quite radically, with new evidence and as perspectives vary.

To sixteenth-century Italians the works of the medieval period or middle ages seemed old fashioned and even foreign brought in by a Teutonic people or Goths , as architects sought to recover their architectural roots in Roman classical architecture. Eventually renaissance ideas spread throughout Europe, but were themselves challenged by archaeology and detailed research in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

This contributed to a recovery of an understanding and appreciation of medieval architecture, known as the gothic revival. More recently the search for an alternative to the forms of modernism adopted internationally has led to a recovery of regional and historical archi- tecture. They analysed ancient historical architectural texts as far back as 2 the fourth and third centuries BC and studied the pre-colonial city of the 3 early eighteenth century, Jaipur.

Work in the commercial world 8 for women was frowned upon in the nineteenth century, but it was accept- 9 able for middle-class women to engage in philanthropic projects such as housing for the poor. The commemorative chapel for the painter G. Watts 1 at Compton, Surrey, —, designed by Mary Watts, his wife, was 2 unusual. Historical 1 research, in other words, can explain what has happened in the past but can- 2 not offer a simple guide to future action.

It is important that we are aware 3 and critical of the ways in which our own attitudes have been constructed. The diameter of the Circus at Bath is feet, 9 the same as that of Stonehenge and this was, so Wood argued, equal to 60 Jewish cubits, that is to say the dimensions of the second temple at Jerusalem 1 Figure 3. He was convinced that Bath 3 had been the principal Druid centre of Britain.

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